Plants used by the Tsonga people of Gazankulu

A study was undertaken in part o f the Tsonga hom eland, Gazankulu, to identify plants used by these people. A list o f Tsonga plant names was extracted from a Tsonga-English dictionary and this was used as a basis for the study. The uses o f almost 200 plants were recorded, including medicine, food, building materials, firewood, household utensils, im plem ents, implement handles and toys. This information is presented in the form of an annotated list o f the plants. This is followed by a discussion o f some o f the more important uses. Som e o f the aspects o f Tsonga taxonom y are briefly discussed and illustrated with examples.

Much of the traditional culture and knowledge of the tribal people in southern Africa is in danger of being lost unless it is recorded.Tribal plant uses and botanical knowledge is of more than academic or his torical importance and may be linked directly to plant utilization and conservation.The Botanical Re search Institute has set iself the task of recording this information, commencing with a project in the northern Transvaal.The main aim of this project was to obtain a record of plants used by the Tsonga peo ple of Gazankulu.A second aim was to test approa ches to the gathering of ethnobotanical information prior to embarking on more extensive studies of the impact of tribal peoples on their environment.
The reasons for choosing Gazankulu as the study area were threefold.Firstly, it is a tribal area where traditional uses of plants have persisted.Secondly, it is a homeland area where a thorough knowledge of the plant-based tribal economy will be useful in future land-use and environmental planning.Third ly, the author spoke the language, could communi cate easily with the people and knew the area.

Study Area
The Gazankulu homeland consists of four separate units situated in the Transvaal Lowveld (see Fig. 1).The main block of the homeland, comprising the dis tricts of Giyani and Malamulele, was chosen as the study area for this project.It is approximately 450 000 hectares in extent, lying west of the Kruger National Park, between the Levubu River to the north and the Letaba River to the south, with an arm in the middle stretching westwards to Elim Hospital.

Topography
The study area includes plateau areas (about 1 000 m altitude) and steep slopes and valleys at the plateau edge; but most of the area consists of low-lying plains (approx.300-650 m altitude) with scattered hills.west.Eighty to ninety percent of the rain falls in sum mer.Temperatures range from a mean winter mini mum of 8°C to a mean summer maximum of 30°C.

The People
The life of the Tsonga people has been covered in great detail by Junod (1962).The Tsongas are basic ally agriculturalists, cultivating crops and keeping cattle and goats.They are dependent on the indige nous vegetation for many things, ranging from struc tural timber to supplementary food and medicine.
Historically, the Tsongas were an east coast people who occupied the southern half of Mozambique, the adjacent eastern edge of the Transvaal and north eastern Natal (Tongaland).Many Tsongas migrated to the eastern Transvaal lowveld and adjoining es carpment areas on a number of occasions during the nineteenth century; firstly, during 1835-1840 when their country was conquered by Nguni who left Natal; secondly, during the 'War of Succession' be tween 1856 and 1862; and thirdly, during the war be tween the Portuguese and the Tsongas in 1894 and 1895 (Junod, I.e.).Many also migrated to the mining towns of the Transvaal in the early twentieth century.Today a number of Tsonga settlements are found as far west as the Waterberg District and Rustenburg (Van Warmelo, 1974).

Demography
The growth of the Tsonga population in Gazankulu as a whole has been rapid, from an estimated 37 000 in 1904 to 75 570 in 1951 and 350 245 in 1976.A further rapid increase is expected with populations of about 600 000 and 1 000 000 be ing projected for the years 2000 and 2020 respectively (Department of Co-operation and Development, pers. comm.).
In the study area the position is similar: following population influxes and with an estimated annual growth rate of about 5%, the area supported a population of just under 200 000 in 1976.(Depart ment of Co-operation and Development, pers. comm.).This represents an average population den sity of 44 persons per square kilometre, with the western parts being the most heavily populated.

RESEARCH P R O C E D U R E
A list of approximately 550 Tsonga plant names was extracted from a dictionary (Cuenod, 1976) and was used as a starting point for the project.Field data sheets were devised for recording the use and the botanical name of each plant on the list as well as the locality and the informant.
As it turned out, the inhabitants of the study area often did not know some of the names incorporated in the dictionary.These were names used in other areas or referring to plants not occurring in the study area.Many of the names were synonymous, so that the final list of plants for which there were Tsonga names contained just under 400 plants.Information on uses was obtained for almost half of these plants (190 species) and 170 specimens were collected.
The field work for the project was carried out dur ing three trips to the study area between April and September 1977.An attempt was made to cover as much of the area as possible, visiting many of the not too inaccessible villages.The procedures used for gathering information were either: 1. to approach people whom the author knew to be helpful (who in turn often recommended others), or 2. to approach people at random along roads or in villages.These people were often engaged in par ticular activities that were worth recording, or reveal ed where to find knowledgeable people locally.
In all these contacts a knowledge of the language and way of life of the people was invaluable.
Both men and women were approached.Women were generally asked about plants used as food, thatch and mats and men about plants used in building and the making of utensils.Both men and women were asked about basketry and medicinal plants.
Most of the information on medicinal plants came from herbalists and information on plants from whose wood objects and utensils are carved from specialist woodcarvers, although some of these plant uses are common knowledge.
There were three approaches to questioning: 1. asking what a particular plant was used for; either giving its Tsonga name or pointing the plant out; 2. asking what plants in the locality were em ployed for various uses; and 3. on seeing a particular object or observing an ac tivity (such as thatching), enquiring as to the plants used.Wherever possible, a specimen of the plant/ plants was collected for identification.Colour slides and black and white photographs were taken, record ing the utilization of plants.
The approach used depended largely on the situa tion.The first of the three approaches is only really effective if one points out a plant and asks about its uses.This approach is necessary if one wants to get both sides of the story (the plant side and the product side) in order to cross-check on information received.The second approach is useful for getting an idea of which plants have localized or widespread distribu tion and uses.
The most rewarding approach is the third since the informant is thoroughly familiar with the plant use.It soon emerged that many village and household activities are highly seasonal.Thus, continuous recording or more regular short visits to the area would be essential for any accurate quantitative assessment of the use of plant material to be made.The information on plants used by the Tsonga of Gazankulu presented here does not cover all seasons and should be regarded as a preliminary list only.
Verification of information on plant uses comes from two sources; literature and cross-checking in the field, using information from a number of infor mants.The latter method works quite well in the case of plants with common, widespread uses.Specialist uses, for example medicinal uses, are not easy to check, since not all herbalists use the same plants.
Verification of information on plant uses comes from two sources; literature and cross-checking in medicinal plants.It w'as possible to verify the use of only 3 of the 35 Tsonga medicinal plants collected during this project.Fourteen other species were either used by other tribal groups for the same pur pose as the Tsongas, or had related species with the same or similar medicinal use.In many other cases use of a plant was verified in the literature, but not for the Tsonga specifically.The most useful publica tions were Van Wyk (1972), Palmer & Pitman (1972), W'att & Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) and Shaw (1974).Junod (1962) provided verification of a few plant uses, but was most valuable for checking on tradi tional methods of thatching, building and basketmaking.

TH E P L A N T S A N D TH EIR USES
The plants have been arranged in alphabetical order of their genus and species names.Tsonga names appear below the botanical names.Only original information on plant uses, gathered during the survey, has been included.Where a voucher specimen was collected, the collector's number is in dicated in brackets after the plant name.Exotic species are indicated by *.Indexes of the uses and of the Tsonga names are appended to the paper.

Acacia ataxacantha DC. (Liengme 22) muluwa
This is a fairly common tree in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.It is often used as fuel, providing a very hot fire.Axe-handles are made from the wood and several types of baskets are made from thin strips of the wood.These strips are woven into mats and then shaped into baskets.The most commonly-seen baskets made in this way are: 1. a shallow saucer shaped basket for winnowing, called a 'rihlelo', and 2 .a fairly deep basket with a wide round opening.
The latter normally has a winnowing basket as a lid.
Acacia caffra (Thunb.)W'illd.mbvinyaxihloka; nkaya/nkayi; nkhayani A common tree in some parts, whose wood is hard and durable and is used for building, fence posts and firewood.

Acacia gerrardii Benth. var. gerrardii nsasani
This tree is not very common and seems to be more or less limited to the Lowveld Sour Bushveld areas.It is a source of firewood.

Acacia karroo Hayne (Liengme 9, 158) munga
Its wood is an excellent firewood.The bark is used as cord and is sometimes made into ropes.

Acacia nigrescens Oliv. nkaya/nkayi
The wood is hard and heavy and is used predomin antly for building.It is also often used for making pestles.This is one of the characteristic trees of the Arid Lowveld and is plentiful.

Adansonia digitata L. mowu/muwu; ximowu/ximuwu
The dry pulp of the fruit is eaten.This tree is almost entirely confined to the Mopane Veld.
Adina microcephala (Del.)Hiern var.galpinii (Oliv.)Hiern muhlome/nhlume/muthuma The wood of this tree is strong and is sometimes used in building.It is also left standing in villages as a shade tree.Young branches make natural stirring sticks, used for stirring mealie meal (Zea mays meal) while it is cooking.

Afzelia quanzensis Welw. (Liengme 204) nxenhe
The wood is used for building.This species occurs on hills and ridges in the Arid Lowveld and the Mopane Veld.

Agave sp.* xikwenga
The fibre extracted from the leaves of this exotic is used for making string, ropes, table mats and other items.The fibre is still extracted manually at home, but most people now buy the string.Prior to the in troduction of Agave the fibre of Sansevieria species was probably used.In the vicinity of the large Agave plantations scattered around Gazankulu the inflorescense stalks are used as fencing material.
A lbizia harveyi Fourn.mola/molani; molela This tree is often found in villages as a shade tree.It is also used as firewood.
A lbizia versicolor Welw.ex Oliv.(Liengme 108) mbhesu/mbheswi; muvambangoma; mvhangazi wo basa; mucece The Tsonga name 'muvambangoma' can be trans lated as meaning 'stretched out like a drum skin' ('-vam ba'-stretch out; 'ngoma'-drum).'Muvhangazi wo basa' can be translated as 'white kiaat' .('muvhangazi' is the Tsonga name for kiaat and 'basa' means white).The roots and bark of the tree are apparently used to make a medicine for driving out demons.The wood is hard and quite beautiful and is used for carving mortars and other objects.The tree is also regarded as a useful shade tree in villages.

Aloe davyana Schoenl. var. davyana mhangani
The leaves of this aloe are used in a game played by children.The nature of the game is uncertain.

Amaranthus cruentus L. (Liengme 100) nhlaba ya foie
Snuff is made from the flowering tops of the plant.The pulp of the fruit is eaten, but the plant is not common enough for it to be important in the diet.The empty fruit is used by children to make a 'pop gun'.Openings at each end of the fruit are plugged with pieces of mealie (Zea mays) cob.If the plug at one end is hit hard the plug at the other end pops out.

Antidesma venosum E. Mey. ex Tul. (Liengme 24) mpfalambati; mphatakhwari
The fruit is eaten and the plant is one of those whose young flexible branches are used as wattles in building.This is a species of the Lowveld Sour Bush veld.

Aptosim um lineare Marloth & Engl. (Liengme 92) ximahlomahlwane
The juice of the leaves of this small herbaceous plant is used by herbalists as eye-drops.

A rachis hypogea L.* manga
Peanuts are cultivated in some parts of Gazankulu.
A rtabotrys brachypetalus Benth.(Liengme 219) ntita/ntiti/ntinta; xivudzi A strong fibre is obtained from this scrambling plant, which occurs in the Lowveld vegetation types.The fruit is eaten and the plant also has medicinal uses.

Asclepias burchelli Schltr. (Liengme 84) kotoni
A decoction of the roots is used for the treatment of intestinal worms.

Asparagus virgatus Bak. (Liengme 141) nkungulantila/nkwangulantilo
This plant is thought to have magical properties.When unwanted rain threatens, a plant is cut and set alight.The youngest child in the family waves this around to chase the rain away.

Athrixia phylicoides DC. (Liengme 21) kofi ya nhova
The leaves of this plant are used to make a hot drink, like tea.

Balanites maughamii Sprague (Liengme 107) nulu
This small tree occurs in the vicinity of hills on the lowveld plains.The roots are pounded and made into a medicine for apparently driving out demons.A musical bow called 'xipendane' is made from this wood.

Bambusa sp.* musengele
This exotic species is found growing in some places.Stems are split and used for fences and pali sades.This plant is placed in hot water to make a medicine and applied to sore places on the body.It is considered to be the male form of 'munywane'; the female form being a plant identified as Epaltes gariepina.

Bauhinia galpinii
Bolusanthus speciosus (H.Bol.) Harms mpfimbahongonyi; nkamba/nkhamba; nkohlwane The wood of this tree is recognized as being good for making furniture.It is often used for implement handles and walking sticks.There is a substance in the roots which is reputed to have a sleep-inducing effect.Young stems and branches are strong and pliable and are used in making the rims of winnowing and other baskets made from strips of Acacia ataxacantha wood.The outer of the two wooden rings of the rim is made from this plant.Young stems and bran ches are also used for tying together roof frame works.The tree is also a source of firewood.It occurs in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.

Bridelia mollis
Burkea africana Hook, mpulu; nkenga This tree is rare in the study area, being found only occasionally in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.The wood is recognized as being good for furniture, hav ing a good texture and colour and not splitting and twisting as it dries.
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.*(Liengme 162) ndodzi The pigeon pea is cultivated in some of the moister western parts of the study area.
Calodendrum capense (L.f.) Thunb.mbhovu The dried fruits of this tree are used to make anklerattles which are worn by dancers at celebrations and feasts.

Capparis fassicularis DC. var. fassicularis muhobadale
The roots of this creeper are used for medicinal purposes, of uncertain nature.

Capparis tomentosa Lam. (Liengme 232, 242) khawa; mukorongwe
The roots are used to make a stomach medicine.The plant is fairly common in the Arid Lowveld.

Capsicum frutescens L.* viriviri
Peppers are occasionally found in gardens.Vahl (Liengme 11,223) nchungulu/nchuguru/ntshuguru This is a common shrub of the Lowveld Sour Bushveld, producing large quantities of fruit in midto late summer.The fruit is delicious and is eaten fresh by all.

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. subsp. beareana (Holmes) Brenan lumanyama/numanyama
This tree is sometimes left standing in villages as a shade tree.

Cassia Occidentalis L. (Liengme 44) nembenembe
The seeds are cooked and eaten, but its importance as a foodstuff is not known.The plant is common in the moister areas and is often found along roads.

Cassine aethiopica Thunb. (Liengme 212) nqayi
The wood of this tree is popular for making walk ing sticks.
Catha edulis (Vahl) Forssk.ex Endl.rithadzi Young branches of this tree are used as withies for roof frameworks.The stimulant properties of the leaves are apparently not known.

Cephalanthus natalensis Oliv. muthondwa/ntondo
This is a fairly abundant climber in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.Its somewhat bitter fruit is eaten.

Clematis brachiata Thunb. (Liengme 63) maamba; mikoka
The leaves of this common herbaceous climber are boiled in water and a person suffering from a head ache inhales the vapours while seated under a blanket.The roots are crushed and placed in the nose to clear up colds.
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels.(Liengme 81, 189, 237) risotse/rixoto; xotse/xotso This is a common climber in the Arid Lowveld and Mopane Veld whose stem is used for making baskets, especially conical baskets called 'xirundzu'.During the dry season the leaves remain green and are sometimes cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

Colocasia antiquorum Schott* (Liengme 34) raboda; rupi
This exotic is sometimes found growing along streams in the moister western parts of Gazankulu.The leaves are cooked and eaten.

Colophospermum mopane (Kirk ex Benth.) Kirk ex J. Leonard (Liengme 91) nxanatsi
The mopane tree is the dominant woody plant of the Mopane veld which covers a considerable part of the study area.The wood is hard and durable and is the major building material where it occurs, being us ed for roof supports, roof frameworks, fence-posts and stockades; The wood is widely used as firewood and is recognised as one of the best firewoods.It is also used for making pestles, yokes and sand-sledges.The bark is very fibrous and is used as cord.The tree is an indirect source of food to the people, being the food-plant of the mopane worm (the larva of the moth Gonimbrasia belina).This worm occurs in summer.It is collected, dried and stored for eating.

Combretum apiculatum Sond. subsp. apiculatum (Liengme 77, 126) mpotsa/mpoza; mugarasaka
The wood of this common tree is hard, making it useful material for building and fence-posts.lmplement-handles and spoons are also made from the wood.

C o m b retu m eryth roph yllu tn (Burch.) Sond.
(Liengme 36) mbvuvu/mvuvu; mgupa The wood is used as fuel, but this is not common practice.The tree is more or less confined to stream banks.

Combretum hereroense Schinz. subsp. hereroense var. hereroense (Liengme 76) mpotsa/mpoza; xikhavi
The wood is cut for building and is also used for axe-handles and pick-handles.Various wooden items are carved from it.The young branches are strong and flexible and are used as withies.

Combretum imberbe Wawra (Liengme 98) mbimba; mondzo
The wood is very hard and durable and is frequent ly used in building, usually for the main supporting poles of a hut.Mortars are carved from the wood and sometimes pestles as well.This species occurs in the Arid Lowveld.
Combretum paniculatum Vert, subsp.microphyllum (Klotzsch.)Wickens (Liengme 199) chochelamandleni yanstongo; mpfunta; mpfuntempfunte The Tsonga word 'chochelmandleni' means 'tap out into the hand', referring to the use of the plant by children: they shake the nectar from the flowers into their hands and then lick it up.A diminutive is form ed by the addition of 'ya ntsongo' to the name.The tree S c h o tia b r a c h y p e ta la is the actual 'chochelamandleni'.The plant is a straggly, scrambl ing shrub occurring along river banks, flowering pro fusely in spring.

Commiphora pyracanthoides Engl, xifata/xifati
The wood is extremely useful and is used for bowls, plates, axe-handles and a musical instrument called 'mbila'.

Corchorus confusus Wild (Liengme 193) guxe
The leaves of this ruderal, common in villages and along roads, are cooked in a relish or gravy and eaten with mealie meal (Zea mays meal).

Corchorus tridens L. (Liengme 93) guxe
This species is used in the same manner as Cor chorus confusus.

Cordia ovalis R. Br. ex DC. (Liengme 75, 85, 227) mpon'wana; mtlele
The young branches are flexible and are used as withies as well as for securing thatch to roofs.The fruit is eaten, generally by children.

Croton megalobotrys Muell. Arg. (Liengme 95) nxunguxungu/nxungwexungwe
A purgative medicine is made from the pounded bark added to a few other ingredients.The plant is recognized by most people as being poisonous and dangerous.It seems to occur in the riverine vegeta tion.

Crytolepis capensis Schltr. (Liengme 96) nyokani
The roots of this forb are used to make a worm remedy.The use of the plant is indicated by its name; 'nyoka' means 'snake or worm'.

Cucumis melo L.* (Liengme 121) rhanga
The fruit of this small melon is cooked and eaten.It is not certain whether this plant is cultivated or not, but specimens were found growing wild.The fruit of the collected specimen was about 100 mm long, oval and yellow.This grass is common in the Lowveld Sour Bush veld.It is used as thatch, particularly as the first layer of the thatch (the 'ceiling').The name 'deke' is most probably derived from the Afrikaans word 'dak'.

Cyperus latifolius Poir. (Liengme 5) njekejeke (leaves); xigoya (culm)
Both the leaves and the culms are used to make mats.The plant is abundant along streams in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.The leaves of this succulent are crushed and the li quid used as ear-drops.

Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. (Liengme 120) xilutsi; xipalatsi
The wood is much sought-after by wood-carvers, because of its beautiful black heartwood.The wood is used for ornaments, walking sticks, knobkieries and also for headrests.Reasonably large specimens of the species seem to be rare.This small common tree/shrub is used as firewood.
Dioscorea cotinifolia Kunth (Liengme 28) nsidwa; risidwa The tough stems of this climber are used in basketmaking.They are used for binding the rims and waists of baskets to the body of the basket.

Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC. mgula; ntoma
The fruit of this tree, common in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld and Arid Lowveld regions, ripens in late winter.Cultivated food can be quite scarce at this time of the year and the fruit is thus an important food resource.The wood is used to make mortars, door frames, hut poles and yokes and occasionally pestles.

D iospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan subsp. natalensis xintomantomane
The Tsonga name can be taken to mean 'little Diospyros'.Sticks are cut from this shrub and used to build palisades (walls around or between a group of huts), as well as being used as withies in hut building.The fruit is eaten.
D om beya burgessiae Gerr.ex.Harv.(Liengme 3) mukurhu The bark of this small shrub is strong and is used as cord.The plant occurs as an understorey plant in the forest along the escarpment in the extreme west of the study area.

rotundifolia (Liengme 78) mbikanyaka; nsihapukuma; xiluvarhi
The wood is used for many purposes, from building to carving spoons for stirring food.The flowers are believed to have magico-medicinal pro perties.They are sprinkled over a hen's eggs to pre vent the chickens from dying once they have hatched.

Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. nyamarhi
This is one of the trees left standing in villages to provide shade.

Epaltes gariepina (DC.) Steetz (Liengme 220) munywane
A medicine is made from this herbaceous plant for relieving pain.The medicine is made by placing the plant in hot water.The lotion is then applied to the affected part of the body.This species is considered to be the female form of the plant 'munywane'.Blumea aurita is the male form.Both are used for the same kind of medicine.

Erythrina lysistemon Hutch, muvale; nsisimbana
The wood is not strong and is only used occa sionally as fence-posts.Truncheons are planted to provide a living fence.

Eucalyptus spp.* ndlulamithi
Gum poles can be bought from timber producers near the homeland and are often used instead of in digenous timber in the construction of roofs.
Euclea crispa (Thunb.)Guerke var.crispa (Liengme 194,203) xintomantomane This species has the same Tsonga name as Diospyros natalensis, indicating that the Tsonga con sider the two plants as the same or similar.The bran ches of this shrub are flexible and are used as withies in hut construction.It is common in the Mopane Veld.Hiern (Liengme 111,226) nhlangula/nhlohlangula

Euclea divinorum
The fruits are eaten, mostly by children.
Faurea saligna Harv.muthango; n'wamidzumba This is recognized as a good timber tree and is used for building and furniture.It occurs occasionally on the western edge of the study area, in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.The wood is also used as firewood, but it is said that a fire made with this wood needs to be well-tended or it goes out.The nectar is sucked out of the flowers by children.
Faurea speciosa (Welw.)Welw.(Liengme 17) muthango; n'wamidzumba This species is generally found at higher altitudes than Faurea saligna.It is not distinguished from that species by the Tsonga, having the same names and uses.

Ficus capensis Thunb. (Liengme 151) nkuwa
This tree is found along streams in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld regions.The 'fruit' is edible but is usually infested with insects.The wood is sometimes used as fuel.

Ficus capreaefolia Del. (Liengme 104) phalavurha; xinkuwana
This species occurs along river banks in the Arid Lowveld and Mopane Veld.The young branches are very flexible and are used as withies.The 'fruit' is eaten.

Ficus soldanella Warb. (Liengme 109) nkuwa ya tintsava
This species of Ficus is found on rocky hills in the lowveld, often actually growing on rocks.Its Tsonga name is indicative of its habitat, meaning 'the fig of the hills'.The 'fruit' is tasty and is eaten.

Ficus sonderi Miq. (Liengme 117, 222) xirhomberhombe xa tintsava
The Tsonga name for this tree is also indicative of its habitat, meaning the 'xirhomberhombe' of the hills.The 'fruit' is sometimes eaten.

Ficus stuhlmannii Warb. nhlulawumbe; xirhombe; xirhomberhombe
The 'fruit' of this fig is sometimes eaten, but it is apparently not as pleasant as some of the other species.
Ficus sycamorus L. (Liengme 139,148,217) nkuwa This large tree occurs mainly along river banks, but in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld it is also found away from the rivers.Here it is often one of the few trees remaining in the field and in villages.The 'fruit' is edible, but, as with many wild figs, is usually in fested with insects.

Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders, mbhimbi/mhimbi
This tree is not very common in the study area.The fruit is eaten and is also used to make an alcoholic beverage.Whether this practice is common or not is uncertain.

Gardenia spatulifolia Stapf & Hutch, ntsalala; xitsalala
The heartwood of this tree/shrub is dark and spoons are carved from it.It is thought that a stick cut from this species and placed in the ground inside a witch-doctor's hut will protect him, presumably from evil forces.

Gnidia rubescens B. Peterson (Liengme 228) xinyokanyokane
A worm medicine is prepared from the roots of this herb.The boll provides a fibre which is little used today.It was used previously in much the same way that cot tonwool is used today.

Grewia species nsihana
The name 'nsihana' appears to be a generic name for the Grewia species.

244) nciwana; nsihana
The wood of this common shrub is used for mak ing musical instruments and rims and basal rings for baskets.The fruit is eaten.This grass is used for thatching roofs by the method of tying the grass into mats first and then at taching these to the roof.The fruit of this small tree is eaten.

Hibiscus can na bin us L. ntsembyana/ntswembyane
The bark of this plant is very fibrous and it is used for making twine and rope.It is a weed, often seen along roads and in old fields.

Hyphaene natalensis Kunze vucema
This palm is rare in the study area and is protected.The leaves were used to make certain types of bags and baskets as well a beer-strainers.These objects are not very common any more because of the scarcity of material.

Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.* gapi (tuber); ritiyi
The sweet potato is cultivated in many parts of the study area.

Jatropha curcas L.* (Liengme 154) nhlamfura ya valungu
This exotic is found in many villages.The people know that the seed contains oil but they don't seem to use it.It is very poisonous and there have been a number of cases of poisoning of children by the fruit.
Kigelia africana (Lam.)Benth.(Liengme 94) mpfungu/mpfungurhu; muveve This large tree occurs predominantly near rivers.The large fruit is burnt when an unwanted storm threatens.Dense smoke is produced and this is be lieved to chase the clouds away.The pulp of the fruit is known to have been ground into flour and used as food during famines.

Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standi, rindanga
The calabash is widely cultivated in Gazankulu.Besides being used as a vegetable, it also provides bowls and scoops.The Tsonga name 'xinkanyana' can be taken to mean 'the little marula': the marula is called 'nkanye'.The fruit is eaten and the bark is used as cord.
Lannea stuhlmannii (Engl) Engl.(Liengme 245) ndivata/ndzivata; ximbukanvi; ximombonkanyi The bark provides a purplish brown dye which is used for drying the materials used in basket-making in order to give the baskets coloured stripes or pat terns.The bark is also used as cord.The wood of the roots is sometimes used in the rims of baskets.The fruit is eaten.The Tsonga name 'ximombonkanye' means 'it has the face of the marula': 'mombo' means 'face' and 'nkanye' is the marula tree.This corresponds to the English common name of the spe cies-bastard marula.

Leonotis sp. (Liengme 102) mahlanganiso
The Tsonga name of this plant is derived from the verb 'hlanganisa' which means 'to unite or join'.If a person has a broken bone, the witch-doctor pricks the skin in the region of the break and applies a lotion made from the tops of the plant.This is thought to heal the bones quickly.
Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng.(Liengme 27) musuzwane; ntungufana Plants are cut and tied together to make rough brooms.The plant also has a number of medicinal uses.The leaves are boiled in water to make a cough medicine and a bleeding nose is cured by plugging it with leaves.The plant occurs commonly in the Low veld Sour Bushveld, especially in areas where the bush has been cleared.

Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe mbhandzu/mbhandzwa
This tree is fairly common in the Arid Lowveld and Mopane Veld areas, particularly along rivers.A de coction of the bark is used as a cure for colds.

Maerua parvifolia Pax (Liengme 229) nongonongo
The roots are used for making medicine, the pur pose of which is uncertain.

Melia azedarach L.* xifiringoma
This exotic provides roof poles and fence-posts.It is only common in the moister western parts of the study area, where it has become naturalized in dis turbed areas.
Oneoba spinosa Forssk.mbhovu; nchowana; tongwaan The dried fruits of this tree are used in making ankle-rattles worn at dances.

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.* mudoro
The fruit of this naturalized exotic is often eaten.The plant is widespread in the Lowveld Sour Bush veld.

Ozoroa engleri R. & A. Fernandes xinungumafi
The wood burns well and it is specially selected when a hot fire is required.
Ozoroa reticulata (Bak.f.) R. & A. Fernandes subsp.reticulata var.reticulata (Liengme 169) xinungu; mfute Besides being used as firewood, this species also has a medicinal use: the roots and bark are used to make a purgative.
m obola (Oliv.)R. Grah.mbulwa The fruit tastes pleasant and is eaten in fairly large quantities.It generally ripens in late winter or early spring.Dried, the fruit keeps for several months.

Peltophorum ajricanum Sond. ndzedwe; ndzhuva; nhlanhlanu
The wood is used for fence-posts and for carving bowls.It occurs in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.

P en n isetu m am erican u m (L.) Leeke subsp.
americanum* mahoba Millet is cultivated in most parts of Gazankulu.The grain is mostly used in the brewing of traditional beer.

Phaseolus sp.* nyawa
Beans are cultivated in some areas.
Phoenix reclinata Jacq.mbovu; ncindzu; nchindu-lisundu This palm occurs scattered along streams in the Lowveld parts of the study area.An alcoholic bever age used to be made from the fruit, but it is uncertain if this is still done.Mats are made from the rachis of the leaf.The rachis is split in four and the pieces are tied or threaded together with twine.

Phragmites mauritianus Kunth (Liengme 163) rihlanga
This reed is common along most rivers.It is used to build palisades, in roof construction and as an underlayer in thatching.
(Liengme 40) nkokotso/nkolokotso; xidengana This tree occurs occasionally in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.The large pods are sometimes fed to cattle.

Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims mphatakhamelo
Spoons are carved from the soft white wood.

Pluchea dioscorides (L.) DC. bvimba
This is another plant whose name indicates its use.The leave were used as a cork or stopper to close bottles, pots or jars.This practice is seldom heard of today.The Tsonga name is derived from the verb '-bvimba', meaning 'seal with a lid'.
Ptaeroxylon obliquum (Thunb.)Radik, ndazi; ndzari Various utensils and other items are carved from the wood.The tree occurs occasionally, usually near rivers.

Pteroearpus angolensis DC. (Liengme 110) mvhangazi; murotso; ntsonde
This tree, commonly known as kiaat, has beauti ful, hard but workable wood from which furniture, bowls, plates, spoons and carved objects of art are made.It is a favoured wood for making items for sale as curios.The tree is protected in the homeland and the wood is not easily obtainable.The bark is used in veterinary medicine.It is believed to cure limping if it is placed on the injured part of the beast.

Ricinus communis L.* nhlampfurha
Oil is extracted from the seeds and used for a number of purposes.It is rubbed on the skin and is also used as ear-drops.The plant is a weedy exotic, common in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.The Tsonga name is derived from the word 'mafurha' which means 'fat, oil or grease'.

Saccharum officinale L.* mova
Sugar-cane is cultivated in gardens in some parts of the study area.

Sansevieria hyacinthoides (L.) Druce (Liengme 187) xikwenga
A fibre is obtained from the leaf, which was once used as a thread for sewing and for making string.Agave fibre has replaced this in most areas.

Sarcostemma viminale (L.) R. Br. (Liengme 119) neta
This is a fairly common plant in the Arid Lowveld and the Mopane Veld, generally growing over trees.The milky sap is added to food given to cows in the belief that it will make them produce more milk.
(Liengme 8,198) mixaka; vungwane This plant occurs along rivers and streams in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld and is used to make mats of inferior quality to those made from Cyperus latifolius.Sond. nkanye This widely distributed, common tree has many uses.The wood is not very hard when fresh and is fairly easily workable, being made into spoons, mor tars, pestles, bowls and plates, drums and cattle yokes.The wood hardens as it dries and is quite durable.It seems that only male trees are cut.Female trees are spared because of the edible fruit they bear.The fruit falls off the tree and ripens on the ground during February/March.It is collected and taken home, eaten or used to make a beer called 'bukanye'.The pips are removed from the fruit by boiling it in water.The skin comes off and is discarded and the flesh can be separated from the pip.The pips are stored for use later and the flesh is usually eaten or allowed to ferment to make beer.The pips are stored until they dry, when they are cracked and the kernels removed.These are very tasty when roasted and are eaten by themselves or added to relishes.The marula tree is probably the most important wild fruit tree of the Tsonga.The bark and roots are used to make a cleansing medicine for the stomach.The leaves are rubbed on mouth-ulcers in order to ease the pain.

Spirostachys africana Sond. ndzopfuri; xilangamahlo
Bowls, ornaments and stools are carved from the w'ood.The tree is not very common in the study area.

Sporobolus africanus (Poir.) Robyns & Tournay (Liengme 159) muxikijane
This grass is sometimes used as thatch, but it is more often used to lash the thatch down onto the roof frame-work.It is also used to make items such as table-mats, sold as curios.

Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. (Liengme 113) nkwakwa
This tree occurs occasionally in the area and is usually left standing in fields.The pulp of the fruit is edible.It can be eaten raw but is normally stamped into a flour and kneaded into cakes or made into a food called 'mpfuma'.The young branches are used as withies in building.

Strychnos spinosa Lam. (Liengme 15) nhlala/nsala
The pulp of the fruit is eaten.Fresh pulp is sometimes added to milk to make it sour.The pulp is also added to mealies (Zea mays) that have been stamped and cooked.

Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf (Liengme 206) nkahla/nkahlwane
The wood is soft and is used for carving spoons.The pulp of the fruit is edible, but it is not certain to what extent it is eaten.The tree occurs in the north western parts of the study area.

Tecomaria capensis (Thunb.) Spach. khujana
The young branches of this shrub are used in the manufacture of baskets.The rims of baskets made from Acacia ataxacantha wood strips consist of two rings of wood bound to the body of the basket.The inner of these two rings is made from the wood of this shrub.

Terminalia sericea Burch, ex DC. (Liengme 32) mugosi; nkonolo/nkonola/nkohono
The wood of this tree is used for making door frames, pestles, spoons and a number of other ar ticles.The root is used to make an emetic.Forssk. kondze; mbvume; xivopfu This is one of the grasses used for thatching in the traditional way.

Trichilia emetica Vahl (Liengme 101, 209) nkuhlu
Oil is extracted from the seeds and used for medicinal purposes.The pulp of the fruit is said to be edible.The wood is one of those from w hich a certain type of musical bow is made.

Turraea obtusifolia Hochst. (Liengme 125) mbhovane
Herbalists use the crushed leaves and fruit of thi shrub to make an enema.
(Liengme 47) nthamula The roots of this creeper yield a brown dye when crushed in water.The twigs are used in basketmaking and the seeds are roasted and eaten.

Vangueria infausta Burch. (Liengme 99) mpfilwa; ntswila
This small tree occurs occasionally in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld.The fruit is eaten and the pulp of the fruit is sometimes added to milk to make it sour.

Xeromphis obovata (Hochst.) Keay mutungababara
The fruit of this Arid Lowveld shrub is used to make an emetic.It is believed that the crushed roots, if given to a patient, drive out demons.Bak. sirudzu This plant occurs on rocky hills and ridges in the lowveld areas.The plants are tied together to make brooms and are also used as fuel for firing pots.

Ximenia caffra
Zanthoxylum capense (Thunb.)Harv.(Liengme 58) khinungumorupa; manhungwane; nugani; xirhombehleta The roots are cooked in the water to make a medi cine for colds.The leaves are crushed and put in the nose as a decongestant.

Zea mays L.* mavele
This is the most important crop cultivated by the Tsonga.It forms the basis of their diet in the form of meal and on the cob.The crop is cultivated all over Gazankulu, even in dry areas.The Tsonga name given here is actually the word used to describe any grain crop.There are several other names given to parts of the plant or referring to different stages of its growth.For example, 'nan'wanyi' is a very young plant; 'mphovo' is an immature ear of maize.

Ziziphus mucronata Willd. subsp. mucronata ncecenyi; mphasamhala
This is a widespread tree, quite common in the Arid Lowveld.The fruit is eaten, mostly by children.

Food plants
Of the wild plants listed as being sources of edible fruit or leaves it would seem that the most important are:
The fruit of Sclerocarya is highly prized, being used to make a beer called 'bukanye'.Diospryos, Strychnos and Parinari fruits are important as they ripen in late winter and early spring, when cultivated foods are scarce.Strychnos madagascariensis fruit is especially important in times of drought, as the dried pulp can keep for months.
Most of the other edible fruits of the study area are small and mostly eaten by children, sometimes by adults.
The Tsonga diet consists mainly of cultivated food plants.Zea mays is the staple food, being widely cultivated.Pennisetum americanum subsp.ameri canum (millet) is also cultivated, mainly to provide malt for brewing beer.
The Tsonga generally cook once a day and the main meal consists of mealie meal (Zea mays meal), 'vuswa', and savoury, 'xixevo'.The latter can be vegetables or sauce (consisting of wild leaves, spinach, peanuts, marula nuts, beans or any other cultivated vegetable) or meat.Flying-ants, grass hoppers and mopane worms are also eaten.
Tsonga alcoholic beverages are made from marula fruit, sugar-cane, maize meal, sorghum and millet, some being more potent than others.

Building (including thatching)
The traditional Tsonga hut of recent times consists of wood and mud walls and a conical roof consisting of a wooden framework covered with thatch.The roof is often supported by poles outside the perimeter of the walls.A hut requires a fair amount of both wood, in the form of poles, sticks and wattles, and grass.Fences and stockades are often made entirely out of wood and large quantities of wood are used in these structures.In the remoter areas all building timber is obtained from the indigenous vegetation, whilst in less remote areas with access to plantations, Eucalyptus is often used.
The traditional method of thatching roofs is to tie grass into mats called 'makenye'.Grass species such as Themeda triandra, Heteropogon contortus or Setaria spp.are used.The mats are rolled up and stacked until the roof is ready to be thatched.Then the mats are laid out on the roof, starting at the lower edge of the roof, and secured.
This thatching is of inferior quality to that produc ed by the method of reverse-thatching, a less com mon method of thatching in Gazankulu.The reason for this latter type of thatching not being common is that it requires grass species like Hyperthelia dissoluta and Hyparrhenia spp.and these hardly occur in the Arid Lowveld and Mopane Veld vegetation types which cover the greater part of Gazankulu.They do occur in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld and reversethatched roofs are somewhat commoner here.Good thatch-grass can be bought from other areas by whose who can afford it.
Reverse-thatched roofs are far more permanent than the others, lasting up to 30 years and longer.
The traditional thatched roofs need replacing every few years.
Much grass is required to thatch a single roof and the women may walk many kilometres to collect suf ficient grass.The women collect and clean the thatch, but it is the men who do the thatching.

Medicinal plants
Much of the information collected on medicinal uses of plants was obtained from a herbalist, Mr Mondlane.Some of his cures are commonly known amongst the Blacks; for example, a stomach medi cine made from the roots of Capparis tomentosa.Many of his medicines appear not to have been pre viously recorded.Eye-drops made from Aptosium lineare and a cure for broken bones made from a Leonotis sp. are two examples.
This herbalist had a wide knowledge of the medici nal uses of plants and knew as well that some plants only grew in certain parts of Gazankulu.To collect all the plants he needed he travelled quite long dis tances.Besides the specialist knowledge of herbalists, the people also have a knowledge of medicinal plants.For example, Clematis brachiata is commonly used to cure colds and headaches.Often the people know that a plant is used by the 'doctors' for curing a condition, but do not know how it is used because that is the 'doctor's' secret.

Utensils and basketry
Although some of the traditional utensils have been replaced by modern goods available at any trading store, many are still in very wide use.Mortars and pestles as well as winnowing baskets are to be seen everywhere, as are wooden spoons and stirrers and conical baskets.Calabashes still have their tradi tional use in beer drinking.Utensils which are bought from a store are usually tin/enamel mugs, basins and plates, buckets and 3-legged cast-iron pots.Basketmaking is one craft which has not died out complete ly, having been stimulated in some parts by demand from tourists.Baskets are of various types and are made from several materials.Conical baskets are us ed for storing mealie meal, beans and other food.These are made from Cocculus hirsutus stems or plaited grass culms, wound around in circles one above the other, each bound to the one below by Cocculus stems split in half.Twilled baskets are made from thin strips of Acacia ataxacantha wood or Hyphaene natalensis fronds.The latter plant is, however, scarce and baskets made from it are now rare.Twilled baskets include the shallow, saucer-like winnowing baskets, spherical baskets with or without lids and 'wallets'.Beer strainers are also twilled.The winnowing baskets and the sphercial baskets are common.The body of these baskets is made from Acacia ataxacantha wood strips.The rim is made from wood of Brachylaena discolor, Tecomaria capensis, Grewia spp. or Lannea stuhlmannii, and is bound to the body with stems of Dioscorea cotinifolia.A third type of basket is made predominantly from a plant called 'staf' in Tsonga; a climber iden tified as Secamone alpinii.Junod (1962), in a brief discussion on Tsonga botany, noted the following:

Tsonga botany
(1) that the notion of 'genus' is present in Tsonga taxonomy; (2) that species are distinguished by mentioning their habitat or sex; and
The object (finished or unfinished) is available and it is possible to record how the plants are prepared for use, how they are used, what other plants are used in conjunction with them, what part of the plant is us ed, how much wastage there is and what damage oc curs to other plants in the process of collecting.
Stapf (Liengme 31,  160, 164, 184, 192)ntsenga; tlongwe This is one of the several species of this genus that are used as thatch.Hyparrhenia species are common in the Lowveld Sour Bushveld, but not in the other two veld types.Most of the species have the same Tsonga names.The last of the Tsonga names is probably derived from the word 'dak'.